Man working in a cafe

Rain Liivoja

I am an international lawyer with a particular interest in legal issues relating to military operations, and science and technology in the defence context. I have taught, written and consulted on general international law, the law of armed conflict, arms control law and human rights law.

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Research

Most of my work has addressed the application of international law to armed forces and military operations. This broad area is characterised by an interaction between multiple branches of international law, notably the law on the use of force (ius contra bellum), the law of armed conflict (ius in bello or international humanitarian law), arms control and disarmament law, human rights law, international criminal law and the law of state responsibility. I am also interested in the domestic regulation of armed forces, especially as concerns military justice, which among other things seeks to ensure that service members comply with international law on operations.

My current research focuses on the regulatory challenges arising from the use of emerging technologies for military purposes. My interest in this area is twofold. On a general level, I look at how international law accommodates — or fails to accommodate — technological change in the military context. More specifically, I consider the international law implications of military applications of biosciences (especially biomedical enhancement of the cognitive and physical abilities of military personnel) and robotics (especially the use of autonomous military systems).

Books

Autonomous Cyber Capabilities under International Law – edited by Rain Liivoja and Ann Väljataga

Autonomous Cyber Capabilities under International Law
NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence, 2021 (edited with Ann Väljataga)

Criminal Jurisdiction over Armed Forces Abroad by Rain Liivoja

Criminal Jurisdiction over Armed Forces Abroad
Cambridge University Press, 2017

Routledge Handbook of the Law of Armed Conflict edited by Rain Liivoja and Tim McCormack

Routledge Handbook of the Law of Armed Conflict
Routledge, 2016 (edited with Tim McCormack)

International Law-making: Essays in Honour of Jan Klabbers edited by Rain Liivoja and Jarna Petman

International Law-making: Essays in Honour of Jan Klabbers
Routledge, 2013 (edited with Jarna Petman)

The Law of Armed Conflict: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives edited bt Rain Liivoja and Andres Saumets

The Law of Armed Conflict: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives
Tartu University Press, 2012 (edited with Andres Saumets)

Journal

Together with Prof Russell Buchan and Prof Emily Crawford, I edit the Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies. This is a biannual peer-reviewed journal published by Brill | Nijhoff. Its objective is to explore the application of international law to humanitarian crises and, more specifically, to examine the role that this legal framework plays in protecting human security during times of emergency. The Journal is aimed at scholars, public officials, military personnel, humanitarian workers, human rights advocates and students.

Editorials

Essays

AWS legal review series – Protracted debate, incremental progress, unexpected outcomes
Articles of War (15 March 2024)

AWS legal review series – Introduction
Articles of War (4 March 2024) (with Sean Watts)

Ukrainal on kohustus suunata kobarmoona üksnes Venemaa sõjaliste sihtmärkide vastu
Eesti Päevaleht (20 July 2023)

Law and the Future of War Update on the REAIM Summit
ANZSIL Perspective (March 2023) (with Lauren Sanders and Brendan Walker-Munro)

Experts weigh in on law of armed conflict priorities
Articles of War (18 February 2021) (along with Michael N Schmitt, Naz K Modirzadeh, Eric Jensen, Mike Lacey, Geoff Corn, Beth Van Schaack, Chris Jenks, Richard B Jackson and Laurie Blank)

Are autonomous weapons systems prohibited?
Game-changer (9 September 2020) (with Eve Massingham, Tim McFarland and Simon McKenzie)

Command in the age of autonomy: Unanswered questions for military operations
Opinio Juris (1 May 2020) (with Eve Massingham and Simon McKenzie)

more

Balancing the lopsided debate on autonomous weapon systems
The Strategist (20 December 2019) (with Natalia Jevglevskaja)

Human enhancement technologies and the law in war and peace
Opinio Juris (8 May 2019)

Status of medical personnel: Clear as mud?
Humanitarian Law & Policy (25 February 2019)

Machine autonomy and the constant care obligation
Humanitarian Law & Policy (11 December 2018) (with Chris Jenks)

Why it’s so hard to reach an international agreement on killer robots
The Conversation (12 September 2018)

Out of sight, out of mind, out of reach? Private military and security contractors under Australian criminal law
Australian Red Cross International Humanitarian Law Magazine (2016) 16–17

Timor-Leste v Australia: Provisional observations
EJIL:Talk! (6 March 2014)

Pope Benedict could face court over sex crimes in the church
The Conversation (28 February 2013) (with Anna Hood and Monique Cormier)

Russia and the ECHR: Tensions rising?
International Law Observer (27 July 2007)

This court sentences you …: Trial court delivers judgment in the first Finnish genocide case
(2011) 2(1) Helsinki Review of Global Governance 34–35

Dish of the day: Justice sans frontiers à la finlandaise
(2010) 1(1) Helsinki Review of Global Governance 20–22

Media

Israel-Hamas war: How an Israel ground offensive in Gaza could unfold
Angus Holland and Jackson Graham, The Age (20 October 2023)

Do the missile deaths in Poland raise the threat of war across Europe? What we know so far
Isabelle Lane, SBS News (18 November 2022)

Russia has threatened retaliation against Lithuania over a ban on key goods. Here’s what it means
Isabelle Lane, SBS News (21 June 2022)

Haud, mis ei saa rahu
Tiina Jõgeda, Eesti Ekspress (30 September 2020)

more

Is there room for ethics and the law in military AI?
Campbell Kwan, TechRepublic (10 April 2019)

Authorities relentlessly hound whistleblower behind the Afghan Files
Charlie Lewis, Crikey (8 March 2019)

So you’ve been accused of war crimes: What’s next?
Charlie Lewis, Crikey (22 June 2018)

Riigikogulase immuniteet: mis ja milleks?
Jüri Saar, Sirp (25 October 2012)

Lost in the fog of war
Tom Hyland, The Sunday Age (12 February 2012)

The law of armed conflict and new technology
Law and the Future of War Podcast (23 October 2020)

70th anniversity of the Geneva Conventions
Mornings, ABC Radio Brisbane (12 August 2019)

When cities become war zones
Top of Mind with Julie Rose, BYUradio (17 February 2018)

Thought-controlled futures
In Pursuit Podcast (10 February 2016)

Presentations

I have presented widely on a range of international law issues. In addition to events convened by (civilian) academic institutions and scholarly societies, I have contributed to seminars, conferences, workshops and panel discussions organised by:

government departments and armed forces
  • Australian Army
  • Australian Attorney-General’s Department
  • Australian Department of Defence
  • Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
  • Estonian Ministry of Defence
  • New Zealand Defence Force
  • Philippines Department of Foreign Affairs
  • Republic of Korea Army
  • Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defence
  • Royal Australian Air Force
  • United States Army Futures Command
  • United States Pacific Command (USPACOM)
military and civil service academies
  • Armed Forces of the Philippines Command and General Staff College
  • Australian Command and Staff College
  • Australian Defence Force Academy
  • Estonian Military Academy
  • Swedish National Defence University
  • United Kingdom Defence Academy
  • United States Military Academy
  • United States Naval War College
  • Vienna Diplomatic Academy
think tanks
  • Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI)
  • Chatham House – Royal Institute of International Affairs
  • Finnish Institute of International Affairs
  • Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)
  • Wilton Park
international organisations
  • North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
  • NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCDCOE)
  • United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)
  • United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA)
humanitarian organisations
  • Australian Red Cross
  • Finnish Red Cross
  • International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
UNIDIR-UNODA Webinar Series

Papers

Autonomous military systems

Enhancing the legal review of autonomous weapon systems: report of an expert meeting
(Law and the Future of War Research Group, University of Queensland, 2023) (with Netta Goussac, Natalia Jevglevskaja and Lauren Sanders)

Weapons reviews of autonomous weapon systems: report on submissions to the GGE on LAWS (version 1.0)
(Law and the Future of War Research Group, University of Queensland, 2023) (with Rosie Cavdarski and Lauren Sanders)

The utility of weapons reviews in addressing concerns raised by autonomous weapon systems
(2023) 28(2) Journal of Conflict and Security Law 285–316 (with Damian Copeland and Lauren Sanders)

The legal requirement for command and the future of autonomous military platforms
(2022) 99 International Law Studies 638–675 (with Eve Massingham and Simon McKenzie)

The better instincts of humanity: humanitarian arguments in defense of international arms control
Jai Galliott, Duncan MacIntosh and Jens David Ohlin (eds), Lethal Autonomous Weapons: Re-Examining the Law and Ethics of Robotic Warfare (Oxford University Press, 2021) 103–120 (with Natalia Jevglevskaja)

Military bioscience and human enhancement

Protecting warfighters from superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering
Matt Killingsworth and Tim McCormack (ed), Civility, Barbarism and the Evolution of International Humanitarian Law: Who Do the Laws of War Protect? (Cambridge University Press, 2024) 177–199 [also available as a preprint]

Ethical issues in military bioscience
(2023) 41(1) Monash Bioethics Review 1–5 (with Ned Dobos)

Being more than you can be: enhancement of warfighters and the law of armed conflict
Matthew C Waxman and Thomas W Oakley (eds), The Future Law of Armed Conflict (Oxford University Press, 2022) 83–102 [also available as a preprint]

Memory modification as treatment for PTSD: neuroscientific reality and ethical concerns
Daniel Messelken and David Winkler (eds), Ethics of Medical Innovation, Experimentation, and Enhancement in Military and Humanitarian Contexts (Springer, 2020) 211–243 (with Marijn C W Kroes)

Eradicating war memories: neuroscientific reality and ethical concerns
(2018) 101(910) International Review of the Red Cross 69–95 (with Marijn C W Kroes)

Are enhanced warfighters weapons, means, or methods of warfare?
(2018) 94 International Law Studies 161–185 (with Luke Chircop)

Left of bang interventions in trauma: some legal implications of military medical prophylaxis
(2018) 44(7) Journal of Medical Ethics 509–510

Cyber capabilities

Autonomous cyber capabilities under international law
(NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence, 2019) (with Maarja Naagel and Ann Väljataga)

Law in the virtual battlespace: the Tallinn Manual and the jus in bello
(2014) 13 Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 45–58 (with Tim McCormack)

Military technology generally

Emerging technologies of warfare
Rain Liivoja and Tim McCormack (eds), Routledge Handbook of the Law of Armed Conflict (Routledge, 2016) 603–622 (with Kobi Leins and Tim McCormack)

Technological change and the evolution of the law of war
(2016) 97(900) International Review of the Red Cross 1157–1177 (also in French, Spanish and Chinese)

Private military contractors

Private military and security companies
Rain Liivoja and Tim McCormack (eds), Routledge Handbook of the Law of Armed Conflict (Routledge, 2016) 623–639 (with Nelleke van Amstel)

Regulating the private military and security industry: a quest to maintain state control and preserve public values (review essay)
(2012) 25(4) Leiden Journal of International Law 1019–1028

Australia: regulating private military and security companies
Christine Bakker and Mirko Sossai (eds), Multilevel Regulation of Military and Security Contractors: The Interplay between International, European and Domestic Norms (Hart, 2012) 507–526 (with Tim McCormack)

Accountability (including military justice)

The role of commanders and individual accountability
William McDermott, Jonna Naumanen, and Ewa Sapiezynska (eds), Human Rights of Armed Forces Personnel: Compendium of Standards, Good Practices and Recommendations (OSCE/ODIHR and DCAF, 2021) 294–308

Competing histories: soviet war crimes in the Baltic states
Kevin Jon Heller and Gerry Simpson (eds), The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials (Oxford University Press, 2013) 248–266

Treaties, custom and universal jurisdiction
Rain Liivoja and Jarna Petman (eds), International Law-making: Essays in Honour of Jan Klabbers (Routledge, 2013) 298–312

Service jurisdiction under international law
(2010) 11(2) Melbourne Journal of International Law 309–337

The criminal jurisdiction of states: a theoretical primer
(2010) 7 No Foundations: Journal of Extreme Legal Positivism 25–58

Honour and the law of armed conflict

Law and honour: normative pluralism in the regulation of military conduct
Jan Klabbers and Touko Piiparinen (eds), Normative Pluralism and International Law: Exploring Global Governance (Cambridge University Press, 2013) 143–175

Chivalry without a horse: military honour and the modern law of armed conflict
Rain Liivoja and Andres Saumets (eds), The Law of Armed Conflict: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Tartu University Press, 2012) 75–100

Human rights in the military context (including military justice)

International human rights law
William McDermott, Jonna Naumanen, and Ewa Sapiezynska (eds), Human Rights of Armed Forces Personnel: Compendium of Standards, Good Practices and Recommendations (OSCE/ODIHR and DCAF, 2021) 37–56

Human rights of service personnel
(2019) 28(2) Human Rights Defender 13–15 (with Alison Duxbury)

Military justice in a comparative and international perspective: a view from the Asia Pacific
(2016) 20 Journal of International Peacekeeping 133–142 (with Benjamin Heng, Daniel Ng and Bruce Oswald)

Trying civilian contractors in military courts: a necessary evil?
Alison Duxbury and Matthew Groves (eds), Military Justice in the Modern Age (Cambridge University Press, 2016) 81–105

Military justice
Markus Dubber and Tatjana Hörnle (eds), Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law (Oxford University Press, 2014) 326–349

Law of treaties (including constitutional issues)

§ 121 [Riigikogus ratifitseeritavad ja denonsseeritavad lepingud]
Uno Lõhmus (toim), Eesti Vabariigi põhiseaduse kommentaarid (Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia Riigiõiguse Sihtkapital, 2022)

§ 123 [Riigipiir ja piirilepingud]
Uno Lõhmus (toim), Eesti Vabariigi põhiseaduse kommentaarid (Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia Riigiõiguse Sihtkapital, 2022)

The scope of the supremacy clause of the United Nations Charter
(2008) 57(3) International & Comparative Law Quarterly 583–612

Kas Paabeli torn? Mõned märkused rahvusvaheliste lepingute erikeelsete tekstide õigusliku tähenduse kohta
(2007) 13(3) Õiguskeel 3–13

Rahvusvahelise Kriminaalkohtu Rooma statuudi rakendamine Eesti õigussüsteemis
(2006) 13 Riigikogu Toimetised 165–171 (with René Värk)

Ratifitseerimise mõiste Eesti konstitutsiooniõiguses ja rahvusvahelises õiguses
(2006) 12(2) Õiguskeel 9–18

Implementation of the Rome Statute in Estonia
(2005) 16 Finnish Yearbook of International Law 79–101 (with René Värk and Merri Kastemäe)

Affiliations